The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region has become a hot spot for worsening extreme heat, drought, and aridity conditions. Moreover, according to recent research, its climate is changing more rapidly and dramatically than ever before. As a result, the region is facing increasing dire habitability challenges such as water scarcity, food insecurity, and ecosystem disruptions, threatening the livelihoods of millions of people. While the discovery of oil in the twentieth century brought wealth, development, and modernization to the area, the rapid progress also generated ecologically unsustainable conditions. From 1850 to 2019, the region only contributed about 2 percent of global cumulative carbon emissions, the lowest such regional contribution. In contrast, emission contributions from North America and Europe for that same period were 23 percent and 16 percent, respectively. Today, oil- and gas-exporting countries in the MENA and Gulf states account for some of the highest levels of per capita greenhouse gas emissions in the world.
The MENA region is one of the most climate vulnerable and impacted regions, given its arid and semi-arid climate. It is estimated to have the highest average temperature increases of any region and with an increasing number of extreme weather events. The region has already experienced record-breaking heatwaves. For instance, in July 2023, temperatures soared to 51 degrees Celsius in Algeria, 49 degrees in Tunisia, and 46 degrees in Jordan, leading to wildfires, widespread power outages, health crises, and even fatalities. The region will be exposed to recurring super- and ultra-extreme heatwaves, which will feature air temperatures up to 56 degrees Celsius and higher lasting for several weeks at a time, in the second half of this century.
At the same time, even though the aridity in the MENA region has significantly increased in recent decades, extreme rainfall events may become more impactful in a warming world. In Jeddah, on the western coast of Saudi Arabia, precipitation events are becoming less frequent but more intense. In April 2024, Dhofar, Oman, and parts of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Bahrain experienced severe flooding due to extreme precipitation, resulting in at least twenty-four fatalities and significant infrastructure damage. These kinds of events exacerbate the drought and water scarcity threats that the region already suffers from.
In sum, rising and impactful climate-related threats—combined with a rapidly growing population that adds stress to the already scarce and overexploited resources, high unemployment rates, and uneven regional wealth distribution—puts the region and its communities in a critical situation where immediate, strong actions are needed to mitigate the intensifying threats and alleviate the effects.
Because of the number of countries experiencing severe climate change repercussions, civic activism focused on environmental and climate issues has gained momentum across the region in recent years. Thus, activism is crucial because it empowers communities to address environmental challenges and advocate for sustainable solutions that can mitigate the impacts of climate change. This article examines the landscape of climate-focused civic activism in the MENA region, exploring the strategies employed by activists, the challenges they face in operating within restrictive political environments, and the potential for civil society to drive meaningful environmental action.
The Rise of Environmental Activism in the MENA Region
Environmental activism in the MENA region has grown significantly over the past few decades. The Arab Youth Survey conducted in 2023 found that nearly three-quarters (71%) of respondents said global warming is already impacting their lives, with this percentage rising to 76% in North Africa and 74% in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. This growth is due to many factors, including expanding educational opportunities, urbanization, new communication technologies, and increasing awareness of environmental issues affecting public health and livelihoods. This section reviews the rise of environmental activism in the MENA region.
Historical Context
The origins of contemporary environmental activism in the MENA region can be traced back to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which triggered global interest in climate change and environmental issues. However, it was the Arab Spring in 2011, followed by the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP18) in Doha, Qatar, that catalyzed a more intense focus on environmental concerns, leading some scholars to describe it as a “green spring.” The uprisings brought not only political issues to the forefront but also environmental ones, as people began to organize at grassroots levels to enforce their political, social, economic, and environmental rights.
The Arab uprisings brought about scholarly interest in developing a better understanding of the dynamics of civic protest in the MENA region. In Egypt, environmental issues were among the many grievances expressed during the 2011 Middle East revolutions. More recently, in 2020, widespread protests erupted in Lebanon due to severe pollution and mismanagement of natural resources. But while environmental activism has been intensifying in the region over the past few decades, it remains an understudied element in the broader landscape of popular mobilization. This diffusion of environmental activism reflects changing opportunities for activists as well as long-term structural changes in the region’s political economy, including population growth, urbanization, education, and migration.
Not surprisingly, the expansion of environmental contestation has been most evident in countries with semi-competitive political systems and long histories of collective action, such as Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Lebanon, and Tunisia. Although environmental activism has also emerged to a lesser degree in authoritarian states considered inhospitable to activism, such as those in the Persian Gulf, routine forms of civic engagement have become almost impossible in war-torn Libya, Syria, and Yemen.
The understudying of environmental activism also stems from the media’s tendency to focus predominantly on the Global North’s climate movement. And consequently, underrepresentation of activists from the MENA region is hindering their opportunities. This selectivity perpetuates a distorted narrative that overlooks climate activists’ unique challenges and successes in regions that face significant environmental and socioeconomic threats.
Factors Contributing to Growth in Environmental Activism
Historically there has been little space for meaningful participation of civil society actors beyond the government-sponsored frameworks. In the MENA region, states have traditionally been largely suspicious of civil society and citizen political participation. This includes participation in environmental politics, understood broadly as political engagement with environmental issues, such as climate change, environmental degradation, pollution, waste management, and water scarcity.
This securitization of environmental issues has long curtailed grassroots and bottom-up environmental activism. It, in turn, has profoundly shaped the modalities of mobilization, focus areas, and the discourses and strategies deployed by MENA environmental activists. Nevertheless, civil society has become increasingly vocal on environmental issues, even in contexts with limited space and opportunities for contestation and political participation, such as in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) notes that the recent shift toward embracing the green and energy transitions, particularly in GCC states, has created more favorable conditions for environmental activists, although many challenges and restrictions remain.
Several key factors have contributed to the growth of environmental activism in the MENA region.
Generational change and the expansion of educational opportunities. A significant generational change in the region, now including about 140 million young people ages 10–24 years, combined with an expansion in educational opportunities and stagnant growth in formal employment, have been important factors in diffusing modes of activism. The Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) framework is now integrated into early childhood care and education in Kuwait and Oman, and Kuwait also reports a full integration of ESD in government education programming. Promising progress has also been reported in Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, Qatar, and Oman. Beyond enhancing the level of scientific knowledge, it serves as a catalyzer for participation and positive action. In parallel, strong public mobilization around environmental issues in Lebanon and Tunisia at the local and national levels exemplifies the crucial role that the new generation of active and educated citizens played in the broader quest for environmental justice. In Lebanon, the 2015 “You Stink” movement marked a historic moment, as it united a diverse range of activists and citizens outraged about the environmental and health hazards caused by waste mismanagement.
Urbanization. Urbanization has been a double-edged sword for the MENA region. On the one hand, it has driven economic growth and modernization, and on the other, it has exacerbated environmental challenges. Rapid urbanization has led to increased pollution, more severe waste management issues, and a lack of green spaces. For example, the Arab Barometer Wave V report from 2018–2019 revealed that 70 percent of respondents in the MENA region consider water pollution a very serious threat, and 66 percent view waste management as a significant issue. The region’s urban population is projected to grow from 56 percent in 2010 to 68 percent by 2050, further straining already fragile ecosystems. This urban growth has also been linked to political unrest, as seen in the Syrian crisis, where environmental pressures contributed to the migration of rural populations to urban centers.
New communication technologies. The advent of social media and digital platforms has revolutionized environmental activism in the MENA region. For instance, the 2023 Arab Youth Survey found that 77 percent of young people in the region are active online, spending over 3.5 hours daily on social media. This shift is driving significant social and political changes, as seen during the Arab Spring, where youth-led protests played a crucial role. These technologies have provided activists with tools for organizing, mobilizing, and disseminating information quickly and effectively. For instance, the Euromed Survey of Experts and Actors from 2012 highlighted that civil society organizations in the MENA region increasingly used digital platforms to advocate for environmental rights and engage in international environmental campaigns. The use of hashtags, online petitions, and virtual protests has enabled activists to reach a broader audience and garner international support for their causes.
Increased awareness of environmental issues. The growing awareness of environmental issues in the MENA region is driven by the tangible, visible impacts of climate change, such as water shortages and pollution, on public health and livelihoods. Studies have shown that environmental degradation in the region has led to increased respiratory diseases, waterborne illnesses, and food insecurity. The Arab Barometer survey found that 44 percent of respondents consider air quality a serious threat to their health. This heightened awareness has spurred grassroots movements and formal environmental organizations to push for policy changes and sustainable practices.
Civil Society Participation in Environmental Activism
Environmental activism in the MENA region takes various forms, identified as small-scale, informal, and localized action, including community-level initiatives to demand access to natural resources and environmental services. The number of NGOs, both legally registered and informal, has grown rapidly in countries such as Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, and Palestine. Also, the number of coordinated popular campaigns, media outreach, and lobbying efforts has also grown.
These efforts are reflected in notable examples from countries like Egypt, Lebanon, Palestine, the UAE, Bahrain, Oman, and Qatar. Each country presents unique challenges and success stories in their journey toward environmental sustainability. Below are some notable examples of active NGOs and the obstacles they face, illustrating the diverse approaches and challenges in promoting environmental sustainability in the region:
Egypt. The Arab Network for Environment and Development (RAED) was established in November 1990 during the Arab Consultative Conference for Non-Governmental Organizations held in Cairo. RAED has faced several challenges, including securing consistent funding, navigating political complexities, and coordinating efforts across diverse member organizations. Despite these difficulties, the network continues to play a crucial role in promoting environmental sustainability and development in the MENA region. Since the 2011 political upheaval in Egypt, the landscape of civil society activism has witnessed fundamental transformations. The country is now home to a rich and expansive number of registered NGOs. But numerous barriers to meaningful engagement remain, such as organizational inefficiencies, fragmentation, and prohibitive political circumstances. A large number of Egyptian NGOs have lacked domestic constituencies that support their missions; operated under an overall environment of restriction; and invariably depended on foreign funding, which repeatedly has exposed them to government attacks aiming to discredit them domestically.
Lebanon. IndyACT (the Independent Youth Climate Change Movement) is an NGO established in 2006 during Lebanon’s July War, initially formed to address the environmental disaster caused by the Jiyeh power plant oil spill. IndyACT focuses on promoting environmental advocacy, climate justice, and sustainable development through nonviolent and innovative campaigns. The NGO has successfully campaigned against several environmental threats, including a proposed coal power plant in Lebanon, and has played a significant role in pushing for Lebanon’s participation in international climate cooperation efforts such as the Paris Agreement. Their awareness campaigns have mobilized thousands of young activists across the region. Despite these successes, however, IndyACT faces significant challenges, such as securing continuous funding for their projects, overcoming political obstacles in a region marked by instability, and raising public awareness in a society where environmental issues may often take a backseat to economic and political concerns. The political climate and limited resources continue to pose obstacles to their sustained environmental activism.
Palestine. In Palestine, the Al Ofoq organization exemplifies youth-led environmental activism. It was formed by young activists from various areas of the West Bank to promote environmental awareness and advocate sustainable practices. The NGO has successfully organized community cleanup campaigns and tree-planting initiatives, significantly raising awareness about environmental issues among local communities. However, due to the ongoing conflict with Israel, their efforts face major challenges, including limited access to resources and support and few safe spaces for activism. They are currently unable to scale up initiatives to achieve long-term impacts. Nevertheless, Al Ofoq continues to mobilize local communities and foster a sense of responsibility toward nature.
The United Arab Emirates. Established in 2001, Emirates Nature in association with the World Wildlife Fund (Emirates Nature-WWF) is a prominent NGO in the UAE dedicated to environmental conservation and climate action. Emirates Nature-WWF plays a crucial role in engaging nonstate actors and youth in the Gulf region, particularly in their home country. The organization receives funding from various sources, including corporate partnerships, government grants, individual donations, and membership fees. They have tried a multifaced approach to working in the UAE, looking especially into research and science to develop evidence-based solutions to various environmental challenges. They have also engaged with policymakers to advocate stronger environmental regulations and sustainable practices. Beyond a few known NGOs, many struggle with securing consistent funding to support their initiatives and navigating the political landscape. Additionally, the lack of professionalization among environmental NGOs serves as a barrier to active participation beyond volunteerism.
Bahrain. The Bahrain Women Association for Human Development, established in July 2001, focuses on empowering women and their advancement and promoting sustainable development. The NGO has launched initiatives to raise awareness among women about climate change and encourage them to adopt eco-friendly practices in their daily lives. The organization relies on annual fees from members to support its activities, as well as donations from individuals and other organizations. Yet they still have limited capacity for advocacy around environmental and climate policy.
Oman. Established in 2004, the Environment Society of Oman (ESO) is a leading environmental NGO focused on conservation, research, and education in Oman. ESO has conducted studies on the impacts of climate change in Oman and launched campaigns to raise awareness about the issue. The organization offers various membership levels with corresponding fees and also accepts donations from individuals, corporations, and philanthropic foundations interested in environmental conservation. Further, ESO has made progress in receiving support from the Omani authorities, but faces challenges which include securing long-term funding from international agencies and the approval of various projects that align with national environmental goals.
Qatar. The Arab Youth Climate Movement Qatar (AYCM Qatar), established in 2019, is the first youth-led association in Qatar that advocates climate action and empowers young people to become climate leaders. It was, in fact, the first of its kind, youth-led climate advocacy NGO, formed informally in 2015 and registered in 2019. The association organizes workshops, events, and online campaigns to engage youth and the community in climate discussions. Most of its operations are financed through project-based funding from government agencies, private foundations, and membership fees. AYCM Qatar is involved in climate and environmental policy and advocacy at the local, regional, and global levels, but faces similar obstacles as elsewhere in the region like limited access to funding, the need for policy support and capacity building, and overcoming societal apathy toward environmental issues beyond a few beach clean-up groups and workshop attendance. The lack of professionalization undermines longer-term capacity-building efforts and stymies their ability to engage in technical and policy-oriented discussions.
While these examples spotlight some prominent nonstate actors, there are numerous other nonstate actors in the MENA region working on climate and sustainability, often without visibility or funding. Their grassroots efforts are vital for fostering change and a sustainable future. As awareness and policies around climate change grow, the involvement of, and innovations from, these nonstate actors are likely to expand.
Main Challenges to Progress to the Civil Society Participation in Environmental Activism
Civil society’s involvement in the region is often overlooked in favor of institutional actors or purposely minimized by those who perceive civil society as a threat. In most MENA countries, especially GCC countries, state-society relations have long been guided by an implicit social contract in which rents from natural resources, particularly substantial oil and gas revenues, are redistributed to citizens in the form of generous welfare packages and socioeconomic services in exchange for loyalty and limited political rights. While this implicit social contract has recently undergone some change, it continues to shape political and civic participation. The space given to civil society thus remains very restricted, and the freedom of assembly and association is significantly curtailed. Whatever space is allowed is tightly controlled.
Restrictive Political Environments
Restrictive political environments in the MENA region pose significant challenges for NGOs and activism. Governments have implemented laws and regulations that severely limit the ability of civil society organizations to operate freely. These restrictions include arbitrary arrests, travel bans, bureaucratic red tape, and constraints on foreign funding. Many countries have introduced vaguely worded laws that allow for selective implementation, enabling authorities to target organizations perceived as threats. The result is a climate of fear and uncertainty, in which activists must carefully navigate unclear boundaries and potential repercussions. This environment has led to self-censorship, fragmentation of civil society, and reduced effectiveness in addressing social and environmental issues. NGOs often operate in hostile terrain, with limited opportunities for mobilization and collaboration. The overall impact is a weakened civil society sector, struggling to influence policymaking and effect meaningful change in the face of authoritarian control and repression.
Limited Resources and Funding
Environmental civil society actors in the MENA region face significant funding challenges. Licensing and registration obstacles further limit their access to support. As a result, many environmental activists operate primarily as volunteers or through social media campaigns, dedicating their personal time and resources to climate and environmental initiatives. NGOs recognized by the state as key stakeholders have had better luck securing funding. But, typically, governmental funding and private sector financing align with the donors’ priorities and not necessarily the organizations’ agendas. The resources therefore sometimes support initiatives that are more like image builders or gimmicks—such as beach cleanups or other similar government-initiated events—rather than projects focused on serious environmental or climate projects. Although these resources have enabled some groups to bolster their actions and broaden their reach, project-based financial support has not always been designed to ensure long-term sustainability. Occasionally, funding comes from foreign embassies and diplomatic missions, but it remains limited due to strict regulations on foreign contributions.
Fragmentation and Lack of Coordination
Fragmentation and lack of coordination pose significant challenges for NGOs and activism in the MENA region, hindering the effectiveness and impact of initiatives. The civil society landscape is often characterized by a multitude of small, isolated organizations operating with limited resources and divergent ideologies. This fragmentation leads to duplication of efforts, inefficient use of resources, and reduced overall impact. The absence of effective networking and collaboration among NGOs working on similar issues results in missed opportunities for knowledge sharing and weakened bargaining power with governments and donors. Restrictive political environments, resource constraints, and geographical barriers further exacerbate these issues. Consequently, civil society in the MENA region struggles to address complex systemic problems, resist government restrictions, and influence policymaking effectively. Despite these challenges, some initiatives are emerging to improve coordination, such as building global networks and creating platforms for collaboration on specific issues. Overcoming fragmentation will require concerted efforts from civil society actors, supportive government policies, and flexible, long-term support from international donors.
Limited Access to Decisionmaking Processes
Over the past decade, environmental activists in GCC states have seen increasing official openness to, and interest in, their work. However, this tends to vary depending on the strategic priority that respective governments bestow on climate and environmental issues. Despite noticeable progress, a key obstacle for civil society actors is the enduring sense of exclusion from significant decisionmaking processes. There is a lack of official and transparent policy processes and inclusive, participatory frameworks that would enable civil society actors to engage with governments and state authorities.
Conclusion
Civic activism for climate change in the MENA region is a growing force driven largely by youth and grassroots organizations. The recent strategic commitment to sustainability and the green and energy transitions has created an opening for civil society to contribute to climate and environmental action in the region. To be sure, the participation of MENA civil society actors in environmental politics has not yet reached its full potential, and many obstacles, such as restrictive political environments and limited resources, continue to prevent them from playing a more substantial and effective role in shaping environmental policy in their respective countries. But, despite the challenges, these activists are making important contributions to addressing environmental issues. Their efforts span various sectors, from water conservation and waste management to renewable energy advocacy and women and youth in climate action and education.
The future effectiveness of climate activism in the MENA region will depend on several factors, including the ability of NGOs to build stronger networks, access sustainable funding, and getting political support. International support and locally driven initiatives will be crucial in empowering these activists to drive meaningful change in the face of escalating environmental crises. As the region continues to grapple with climate change impacts, civic activism will become increasingly important in shaping policies, raising awareness, and implementing community-level solutions. By addressing the challenges facing civil society and fostering an enabling environment for activism, MENA countries can harness the power of civic engagement to build more resilient and sustainable futures.
