Located in a geographically challenging zone characterized by scarce water resources¹ and extreme climatic conditions, ranging from arid to semi-arid, Yemen stands as one of the countries most severely affected by a chronic water crisis. The country heavily relies on rainfall, which is highly irregular in both timing and geographical distribution. Annual precipitation in Yemen typically ranges between 108 and 114 millimeters²—well below the minimum necessary for both urban and rural communities—leading to a persistent deficit in surface water resources. 

Given this scarcity, reliance on groundwater has become an indispensable solution, serving as the primary source for meeting the population’s water needs. However, this critical resource is increasingly threatened by uncontrolled extraction, particularly through thousands of unlicensed wells, lack of effective institutional oversight and an absence of comprehensive strategies for sustainable management. Yemen also has one of the lowest per capita water availability rates in the world—approximately 150 cubic meters per year—compared to an average of 1,250 cubic meters in the broader Middle East and North Africa region.³ This stark disparity underscores the severity of the country’s structural water deficit. Compounding the crisis is the widespread mismanagement of water resources, especially within the agricultural sector, which accounts for over 90% of total water consumption. The near-total reliance on outdated, inefficient irrigation methods results in the loss of vast quantities of water with minimal corresponding agricultural output.  

However, apart from environmental and administrative challenges, the most severe threat to Yemen’s water security over the past decade has stemmed from the ongoing armed conflicts which have had devastating impacts across all sectors—particularly, the water management system. The escalation of violence has resulted in the widespread destruction of essential water infrastructure, including dams, pumping stations, and distribution networks. As a result, millions of people have been cut off from reliable water sources and forced to rely on unsafe and unsustainable alternatives, such as tanker-delivered water or contaminated shallow wells. 

The crisis was further intensified by large-scale internal displacement, which placed enormous pressure on relatively more stable regions. In many of these areas, water demand effectively doubled, overwhelming local systems and distribution networks that were not designed to accommodate such population surges. These strains might have been mitigated if not for the widespread institutional collapse of the government bodies tasked with managing water resources. As their capacity to enforce regulations, implement strategic plans, and maintain infrastructure deteriorated, the situation spiraled into what can be described as water governance chaos—marked by over-extraction, and worsening pollution. 

Against this backdrop, the present article aims to examine the multifaceted impacts of protracted conflict on Yemen’s water sector through a multi-level analysis encompassing technical, environmental, institutional, and social dimensions. It seeks to deepen understanding of the complex challenges impeding water security amid declining governance, the erosion of infrastructure, and ongoing environmental and demographic pressures. As the analysis unfolds, it becomes evident that water in Yemen is no longer merely a natural resource—it has become a cornerstone of national stability. From this perspective, it is essential to deconstruct the crisis by comparing two key phases: the pre-conflict and post-conflict periods. This comparison will help explain how the water sector has transformed, shed light on its current complexities, and explore potential pathways toward restoring balance and long-term sustainability in this critical domain.

Pre- and Post-Conflict Water Challenges in Yemen

First: Pre-Conflict Water Challenges

Even before the outbreak of armed conflict, Yemen was grappling with long-standing structural water challenges, driven by a complex interplay of natural and institutional factors. Reports from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)⁴ have emphasized that these issues were not the result of a sudden or isolated shock, but rather the product of decades of inadequate planning, mismanagement of resources, and the gradual erosion of infrastructure in a country with rapidly growing population and limited water supplies. Among the most prominent pre-conflict challenges were:

1. Chronic scarcity of water resources: One of Yemen’s most critical pre-conflict challenges was the chronic scarcity of water resources, reflected in the country’s near-total reliance on groundwater and the allocation of approximately 90% of available water to the agricultural sector. This sector, in turn, is heavily dependent on traditional, low-efficiency irrigation methods. Such unsustainable consumption patterns have led to the rapid depletion of underground aquifers, particularly in regions like Tihama and Wadi Hadramawt. Estimates reveal that in these areas, annual groundwater extraction significantly exceeds natural recharge rates, leading to groundwater level declines of two to six meters per year.⁵
2. Transmission and distribution problems: Water transmission and distribution networks in Yemen have long suffered from high leakage rates, with losses exceeding 50% of the total volume transported. This inefficiency is largely due to structural degradation and insufficient maintenance over time. Additionally, the limited capacity of small dams and existing water infrastructure prevents effective storage of seasonal rainfall, resulting in the loss of significant volumes of water that could otherwise be harnessed to support national water security.
3. Institutional Fragmentation: Water management institutions in Yemen lacked even the most basic levels of internal coordination and long-term strategic planning. This institutional fragmentation led to overlapping mandates, policy duplication, and inefficient use of resources.⁶ These shortcomings were further compounded by rapid population growth—exceeding an average of 28% annually in some regions—and the spread of informal urbanization, which fueled unregulated water demand and deepened existing disparities in distribution.

Second: Post-Conflict Water Challenges

Since the escalation of armed conflict in 2015, Yemen’s water crisis has entered a far more complex and perilous phase, as the hostilities significantly worsened the already fragile situation. According to reports from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), more than 45% of Yemen’s water infrastructure—including pumping stations, distribution networks, and dams—has been either partially or completely destroyed.⁷ This widespread damage has had a direct and severe impact on the population’s access to safe and reliable water sources. 

1. Destruction of Infrastructure and Reduced Access to Water: Targeting water infrastructure has led to a sharp decline in access to water—by nearly 50% in rural areas and up to 70% in urban centers. This sudden collapse in water service delivery has further deepened the vulnerability of communities, particularly those lacking alternative sources or external humanitarian support.⁸
2. Worsening Water Pollution and Disease: The collapse of drainage infrastructure and the lack of maintenance have led to the widespread leakage of both solid and liquid waste into water sources. This has caused a dramatic increase in water pollution, triggering outbreaks of dangerous diseases—most notably cholera, which infected over one million people between 2017 and 2019.⁹ Field assessments indicate that approximately 55% of groundwater and surface water sources are now deemed unsafe for human consumption.¹⁰
3. Demographic Pressure Due to Internal Displacement: The internal displacement of over 4 million people¹¹ has placed immense pressure on regions that have remained relatively untouched by direct conflict. This unplanned population influx has led to a sharp increase in water demand, often doubling consumption in host communities, thus exacerbating social tensions between host populations and displaced communities.
4. Collapse of Management Institutions and Lack of Governance: The complete collapse of government institutions responsible for water management has turned the sector into a landscape of unregulated activity and systemic disorder. With local authorities severely limited in their capacity to deliver services or enact structural reforms, water governance has all but disintegrated. This vacuum has led to a surge in unregulated well drilling, further accelerating the unsustainable depletion of groundwater reserves.
5. High Supply Costs and Disruption of International Aid: The widespread destruction of water infrastructure has driven the cost of trucked water to more than 400% above pre-war levels, placing clean water far beyond the financial reach of many Yemeni households. At the same time, lawlessness and the breakdown of political order have severely disrupted international aid efforts. Many water-related relief projects have been suspended or terminated precisely when the country was in most urgent need of them.¹²

The Impact of Conflicts on Water Resources Management in Yemen

Analysis of the direct and Indirect Impacts of Conflicts

Armed conflicts play a critical role in reshaping the governance of water resource management systems. Their impact extends beyond immediate disruptions, leading to long-term structural transformations that affect infrastructure, governance frameworks, distribution mechanisms, and the broader socio-economic balance. These impacts can be categorized into two interrelated dimensions: direct effects, which stem from the immediate consequences of armed conflict, such as physical destruction and damage to water infrastructure; and indirect effects, which emerge from the resulting institutional chaos and the gradual erosion of both societal and administrative capacities.

The Direct Impacts of the Conflict

• Destruction of Water Infrastructure: International reports estimate that over 45% of Yemen’s water supply networks and related infrastructure have been either partially or completely destroyed due to ongoing military operations. This includes critical facilities such as pumping stations, water storage tanks,¹³ and distribution networks, leading to a near-total disruption of essential water services in many regions. Additionally, the deliberate targeting of small and medium-sized dams has significantly hindered the state's capacity to harvest and manage seasonal rainwater. This has, in turn, reduced the efficiency of irrigation systems, particularly in key agricultural zones such as Tihama and Wadi Hadramawt. As a result of this collapse, millions of Yemenis have been forced to depend on alternative water sources, many of which are unreliable and do not meet basic quality or safety standards. 
• Pollution Resulting from Military Operations: Armed conflict in Yemen has been accompanied by the widespread release of industrial and petroleum-based pollutants into both surface and groundwater sources. This contamination has led to a significant decline in water quality, posing serious risks to both human health and agricultural productivity. In addition, the destruction or functional disruption of sewage infrastructure has resulted in the mixing of untreated wastewater with potable water supplies, creating conditions conducive to the spread of deathly waterborne diseases, most notably cholera. Between 2017 and 2019, Yemen experienced one of the most severe cholera outbreaks in recent history, with over one million reported cases, marking it as one of the worst water-related health crises globally in the past decade.¹⁴
• Militarization of Water Resources: In certain conflict zones, water has been transformed from a vital life-sustaining resource into an instrument of military and political leverage. Warring parties have deliberately targeted or seized control of dams and critical water infrastructure, and in some cases, have restricted civilian access to key water sources. This weaponization of water has been particularly pronounced in agricultural regions, where water availability is directly linked to food security and rural livelihoods. Such practices have severely undermined agricultural productivity, and increased the vulnerability of already fragile local communities.¹⁵ 

The Indirect Impacts of the Conflict

• Collapse of Institutions Responsible for Water Resource Management: The protracted conflict in Yemen has resulted in the near-total paralysis of governmental institutions responsible for the regulation and management of water resources. This institutional collapse has led to the suspension of oversight mechanisms and the disruption of enforcement of water-related legislation, giving way to the proliferation of unregulated practices such as the random drilling of wells without proper hydrological assessment or environmental safeguards. These unsustainable extraction methods have significantly accelerated the depletion of groundwater reserves, leading to a sharp and unprecedented decline in water table levels across several regions. 
• High Economic Costs: The combination of water scarcity and the widespread destruction of distribution infrastructure has led to growing dependence on water tankers and private transportation services. This shift has caused the cost of accessing clean water to rise dramatically—by over 400% in some rural areas compared to pre-conflict levels. The sharp escalation in water prices has rendered it unaffordable for a significant portion of the population, particularly low-income households, and negatively affected health and living standards.
• Exacerbation of Social and Demographic Tensions: The ongoing conflict has fueled localized disputes over resources, particularly in regions experiencing large-scale internal displacement. This has intensified competition for access to vital resources, such as water, between indigenous populations and displaced communities, thereby creating fertile ground for social conflicts and increasing tensions. Moreover, the disparity in resource access has deepened economic and developmental gaps between conflict-affected areas and regions less impacted by the war, leading to broader socio-economic disparities at the national level.
• Declining Investments in Water Projects: Throughout the years of conflict, both the Yemeni government and the international community have been primarily focused on addressing immediate humanitarian needs, which has resulted in a significant decline in investments directed towards long-term development projects, particularly those related to the water sector. Security challenges and political instability have led to the suspension of numerous international initiatives aimed at enhancing water infrastructure and strengthening local capacities for sustainable water management. Consequently, the future of water security in Yemen now hinges on the restoration of political trust and the establishment of a secure environment that will allow for the return of long-term investments in the sector.

Case Studies from Different Regions in Yemen

Water conditions in Yemen exhibit significant regional disparities, with the challenges and risks varying based on the unique environmental, social, and demographic characteristics of each area. The following section presents an in-depth analysis of three case studies—Sana'a, Tihama, and Aden—each illustrating the water situation prior to the conflict, the direct and indirect impacts of the ongoing war, and the subsequent implications for both populations and resources. Additionally, these case studies explore the existing gaps in water management and identify potential opportunities for improvement within each region’s specific context.

Sana'a 

Pre-Conflict Water Conditions:

Prior to the conflict, Sana'a, the capital of Yemen, was heavily reliant on groundwater to meet its water needs, as the region lacked permanent surface water sources. However, the early signs of a growing water crisis were already evident due to the ongoing over-extraction of groundwater at rates that far exceeded the natural replenishment capacity of aquifers. Compounding this issue was the lack of a comprehensive strategic vision for the modernization of water infrastructure. The absence of significant improvements in distribution networks or extraction techniques contributed to the deepening vulnerability of the water system long before the outbreak of the conflict.

The Impact of the Conflict:

The escalation of armed conflict in Sana'a has resulted in the destruction of vital water infrastructure, including pumping stations and distribution networks, severing water supplies for over three million residents of the capital. In addition, the indiscriminate drilling of wells has exacerbated the situation, leading to the rapid depletion of groundwater reserves, with some areas experiencing a decline in water levels of up to 6 meters per year. The growing reliance on water trucked in from external sources has further exacerbated the crisis, leading to a more than 400% increase in water costs and making access to clean water a significant economic and livelihood challenge for low-income households.

Consequences: 

• The reliance on contaminated and unsafe water sources has led to a significant increase in waterborne diseases, particularly cholera. 
• The sharp rise in water costs has exacerbated social and economic disparities, creating a divide between those who can afford to purchase water and those who depend on aid or limited local resources, further deepening societal divisions.

Tihama

Pre-Conflict Water Conditions 

The Tihama region, one of Yemen’s most crucial agricultural areas, primarily relied on rainwater collected in small, local dams to meet its irrigation needs. Despite the region's vital role in food production, its water infrastructure was severely weakened due to the lack of sustainable planning, inadequate maintenance of dams, and the scarcity of long-term institutional investment.  

The Impact of the Conflict

The ongoing conflict has directly contributed to the destruction or systematic neglect of local dams, significantly reducing the region's capacity to capture and store rainwater for agricultural use. Additionally, increased pressure on these limited water resources has intensified local disputes among farmers, escalating social tensions and complicating water regulation and management efforts. As a result, agricultural productivity has declined, further exacerbating food insecurity and increasing the population's reliance on humanitarian aid.

Consequences

• The collapse of agricultural activity has caused thousands of families to lose their primary sources of income, contributing to widespread poverty and deteriorating living conditions. 
• As conditions in Tihama worsened, many residents have been forced to migrate to urban areas, putting additional strain on the already limited water resources in these relatively more stable regions.

Aden

Pre-Conflict Water Conditions

Aden's water supply relied on a combination of desalination plants and groundwater projects. However, these systems had long struggled with inefficiencies and were unable to meet the increasing demand driven by rapid urbanization. Additionally, the city's water distribution networks were in a state of disrepair, primarily due to a lack of regular maintenance and updates.

The Impact of the Conflict

The ongoing conflict has severely impaired desalination plants and destroyed water distribution networks, leaving groundwater as the primary, though increasingly unreliable, source of water. This crisis has been further aggravated by the leakage of industrial and oil waste into aquifers, significantly complicating the accessibility of drinking water. The struggle for control over resources within the city has heightened tensions and further strained public service management.

Consequences

• The city has experienced prolonged interruptions in water supply, significantly increasing the economic burden on residents and deteriorating their quality of life.
• Escalating societal conflicts, driven by competition for limited resources, have weakened social cohesion and undermined local stability. 

Rural Communities: Marginalized Areas in the North and Center of the Country

In remote rural areas such as Amran, Saada, and Abyan, the water crisis is particularly severe, with limited water infrastructure in place. These communities primarily rely on surface wells or manually collected rainwater to meet their needs. As the conflict intensified, these areas became increasingly isolated, cut off from institutional support networks and humanitarian aid. This exclusion from reliable water sources has disproportionately affected women and children, who are forced to travel long distances to fetch water, often in precarious security and health conditions.

The three case studies, along with the challenges faced by remote rural areas, highlight the complex and varied water issues exacerbated by the conflict in Yemen. These disparities underscore the need for multidimensional strategic approaches that account for regional and social differences.  

Key actions should include rehabilitating investments in water infrastructure, strengthening local governance, and establishing robust international cooperation mechanisms to rebuild Yemen's water security system in a sustainable and equitable manner.

Conclusion

The water scene in Yemen today reflects the profound and multifaceted nature of a crisis where water resources are deeply intertwined with political, economic, and social transformations. This intersection has created a new front in the ongoing conflict, exposing vulnerabilities in state structures. Through both historical analysis and field research, this study demonstrates that Yemen's water crisis is not merely the result of a geographical location plighted by limited natural resources or a volatile climate, but rather a complex consequence of poor development policies, a lack of strategic vision, and an unchecked depletion of groundwater—particularly driven by unsustainable agricultural practices such as qat cultivation. 

Several factors have exacerbated the crisis, including the disintegration of state institutions and the loss of their regulatory functions, the lack of integrated planning, and the erosion of the state’s capacity to respond effectively to climate change. As the conflict has escalated over the past decade, its impact has extended beyond the destruction of water infrastructure; it has also undermined the broader administrative framework, including agencies responsible for water management, regulation, and oversight of drilling and resource usage, leading to increased resource mismanagement and a decline in operational efficiency. 

The waves of internal displacement that followed the outbreak of the war have become one of the most pressing challenges for the water system in Yemen. Host communities have been forced to confront unprecedented difficulties in meeting basic water needs in areas already suffering from severe scarcity. This has escalated social tensions, deepened economic vulnerabilities, and exacerbated the psychological fragility of the population. The deterioration of the situation has not been confined to institutional and social dimensions but has also extended to the natural environment. Military operations, coupled with chemical and biological leaks, have contaminated both surface and groundwater sources, worsening the spread of waterborne diseases, particularly cholera, particularly in the absence of adequate healthcare infrastructure and rapid response mechanisms. In this context, the water crisis in Yemen cannot be understood in isolation from the broader environmental and political landscape. The overlapping issues of water scarcity, pollution, and state failure have made the conflict itself a significant driver of this environmental disaster. 

This study adopts an integrated analytical approach, emphasizing the need to reconsider the role of natural resources within conflict environments. It advocates for the incorporation of "human security" and "environmental security" dimensions into a comprehensive water security framework. The issue is no longer solely about providing water as a technical resource; it is now fundamentally tied to social justice, political stability, societal cohesion, and the need to address the impacts of climate change. 

Despite the severity of the situation, there is potential for positive transformation. By leveraging local capacities alongside regional and international efforts, there are opportunities to rebuild Yemen’s water system on a more robust and sustainable foundation. Investing in integrated resource management, strengthening good governance, and restoring institutional effectiveness are essential steps toward any meaningful economic and social recovery. 

Saving Yemen from the looming water crisis requires, first and foremost, genuine political will, effective regional cooperation, and balanced international intervention that goes beyond emergency relief efforts to include the establishment of sustainable, strategic projects focused on building national capacities, rehabilitating infrastructure, and fostering community awareness about the value of water and the importance of its preservation. Only through this integrated approach can Yemen break free from the cycle of water scarcity and ensure a secure future for its generations to come.